ARABIC INFLUENCES ON SICILIAN FOODS

B. Medieval Sicily

Habeeb Salloum

of Sicily today are different than most foods of northern Europe. In the words of Root:

            "You could draw a map of the limits of Moslem invasion by blotting the places where, during the Middle Ages, their fine flaky pastry became established."^[6]

             Sicily, the springboard of Arab influences in the Italian cuisine, is the largest island in the Mediterranean. It was first settled by the Phoenicians, then Romans, followed by the Byzantines. However, it was under Arab rule (878 to 1091 A.D.) and their Norman conquerors (1091 to 1194 A.D.) that the island reached its pinnacle of glory. In these two short periods of history the Arabs were able to make Sicily a rich-advanced land called by some historians in that era ` an earthly abode of the blessed'  or `bride of the Mediterranean,' while medieval visitors from the other Arab lands called it `a garden paradise'.

            During their 220 year rule, the Muslims left their imprints on all aspects of the island's life. They brought to Sicily a sophistication and refinement, with the exception of the Iberian Peninsula, unknown to the other parts of Europe.^[7] In the fields of architecture, education, industry, commerce and especially agriculture, they introduced profound changes.

            Mining was developed and, among others, the salt industry expanded and, due to the Arab control of the central Mediterranean, commerce flourished. However, it was in the field of agriculture that the Arabs reached the epitome of their contribution to Sicilian life. From the very first days of the conquest, cultivation of the land was greatly encouraged.  Uncultivated land became the property of whoever broke it first. This is said to have given Sicilian agriculture the greatest impetus it had ever known.^[8]

            The Muslims extended the ancient irrigation works they had found on the island and built a vast number of reservoirs and water towers. Remains of these reservoirs are some of the very rare monuments which still survive from the Arab age.^[9]

            Even in our times, most sources of water and measurements of its flow obtained Arab names which they still retain.^[10] From among these are: catusu (water pipe), from Greek via Arabic; gebbia (water tank), from the Arabic jayb; giarra (water tower), jarrah; senia (bucket utilized in an irrigation well), saniyah; and the water measures darbu and zappa.^[11]           

            Agriculture flourished as it never had before the Arab conquest or after their demise. This is attested to by M.T. Simeti in her book Pomp and Sustenance:

"In truth, it was not the Saracen army, chefs and all, that had the greatest impact on Sicily   and its cuisine, but the colonists who came with them, hungry for land and armed with a   highly developed agricultural technology. In particular the refined methods of irrigation   that had been developed in their desert oases allowed the Saracens to introduce intensive cultivation on a scale hitherto unknown in Sicily. A new system of property-based   taxation encouraged the extension of farming to lands that had previously lain fallow,   and new villages were founded throughout the interior."^[12]

             With the advent of the new agriculture laws and, especially irrigation and a whole series of new crops, the Sicilian hortus (walled gardens) were transformed into gardens of earthly delights.^[13] Into these hortus, countless new plants were introduced and they thrived.  Practically all the distinguishing features of Sicilian farming today were introduced by the Arabs.^[14]

            The Arabs brought with them citrus fruits and cultivated them on a wide scale. Lemon (Italian limone from the Arabic laymun) and orange (arancia from the Arabic al-naranjah) orchards were to be found in all parts of the island. Today, they are so wide­spread that the aroma of their flowers, which still carry an Arabic name, zàgara, originally zahr, hovers over every path and road. Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Basayr, a 11th century Arab-Sicilian , enamoured with the products of these orchards wrote "Come, delight in the orange you have gathered: it brings happiness with its presence."^[15]

            In addition, the Arabs introduced into the island, among others, a great number of the fruits, spices and vegetables, many of which still carry their Arab names. ­Buckwheat (Italian saraceno), from the Arabic sharqiyin; brush palm (giummara - gimar); carob (carrubo - kharrub); cumin (cumino - kammun); jasmine (gelsuminu - yasmin); prickly pear (zabbara - sub~r); pistachio (pistacchio - fustuq); spinach (spinacio - isbanakh); sugar cane (canna da zucchero - sukkar); saffron (zafferano - zafaran); sumach (sommacco - summaq); tarragon (targòne - arkhun) and its crushing in mills; and a type of grape vine which is also a name of a well-known wine (zibibbo - zibib) are  some of these food plants.

            Further, the Arabs in Sicily introduced or extended on a large scale the cultivation of dates, melons, rice and sugar. With all these new products, it is no wonder than that less than a century after the Arab conquest, Sicily became known as the 'Garden Island of Southern Europe'.

            Alongside the fruits and vegetables, the Arabs developed a very successful fishing and preserving industry. They were masters of salting and preserving fish, and in fishing. The Sicilian uovo di tonno (tuna roe) from the Arabic tunn, pressed, salted and dried goes back to the Muslim age and the Arabs ritual of fishing swordfish is still followed. Today's fishermen retain the old method of fishing, using Arabic words to communicate with each other.^[16]

            The Arabs also left a lasting legacy in many other economic areas. They introduced alfalfa, cotton, flax, mulberries, silkworms and the manufacture of textiles, especially silk. The Arab origin of cotton (cotòne - qutun) cultivation and manufacturing is attested to by the large number of Arabic terms employed for particular kinds of cotton fabrics.^[17]  Papyrus, as a writing material flourished, especially in Palermo. During the Muslim era, papyrus was cultivated in a quarter of the city which is still called today Papireto.^[18]

            The bountiful countryside made possible a proliferation of towns and cities. Sicily became the showplace of Europe and  Palermo with its 300,000 inhabitants, which the Arabs had made their capital, grew into a city of great luxury - second only to Constantinople in Europe -  and one of the renowned centres of Arab civilization.

            Ibn Hauqal, a merchant from Baghdad, who visited Sicily late in the 10th century wrote that the island was flourishing with crops.  He particularly admired the lush market gardens around Palermo.^[19]  Al-Istahri, a Persian traveller in the same century, described Sicily as `a land so fertile, rich in cereals, cattle and slaves as to surpass by far every other Muslim kingdom bathed by the sea'.^[20]

            In the latter part of the 11th century when the Normans, under Roger I, conquered the island, they were dazzled by the sophistication and luxurious ways of the Arabs. The nobles imitated them in all aspects of life, becoming replicas of the former Muslim ruling class. Roger II and others of its Norman kings used Arabic honorific titles like al-Malik al-Muazzam al-Qidd§s (the Great and Venerable and King) and Nair al-Nar~niyya (Defender of Christianity). In their flowing robes, architecture,  Arabic language and harems, it was natural for the Arab poets to praise their new Norman emirs.^[21]  The architecture, civil service, literature and, especially food of these crude northern European conquerors replicated that of the conquered. M.T. Simeti, writes:

            "Palermo in the 12th century continued under the Normans to be one of the largest, richest, and most cosmopolitan cities in Europe. Arab dress became fashionable among the ladies in court; an Arab chef cooked for the royal table of Roger II; Arabs administrated the king's finances, served in the king's bodyguard, built the king's chapels               and king's palaces, and laid out the fabulous gardens and pavilions where the king took  his leisure."^[22]

            The Normans retained Palermo as their capital and employed Arab artisans to embellish the city until it became one of the most colourful metropolis in the world. In 1183, Ibn Jubair, an Arab traveller, when describing Norman Palermo wrote:

            "Ancient and elegant, splendid and passing fair, she rises before you like an enchantress, enthroned  among her open spaces and her plains that are unto one garden. With     spacious alleys and main thoroughfares she dazzles the eyes with the rare loveliness of   her aspect... The [pleasure] palaces of the king encircle the city as a necklace clasps the throat of a maiden with a well-filled breast."^[23]

            The beauty and prosperity of the whole island under Norman rule led Abd al-Rahman of Butera, a 12th century Arab poet to write: "No life can be serene, save that in the shadows of sweet Sicily."^[24]  

            All this changed when the Sicilian Muslims were expelled from the island in the first half of the 13th century. After the death of Frederick II in 1250, many of the Arab's technical and agriculture traditions disappeared. Thereafter, the island sank into poverty which even today has not been totally eliminated.^[25].

            However, in the lives of the people Arab influences lives on. Arab type domes; pierced stone or plaster windows, with their intricate geometric patterns; various types of chevrons; and the pointed arch remind one of Muslim Sicily. Likewise, Arab technical traditions have left abundant linguistic traces. Fifty-four out of the 309 originally Arabic words current in medieval Sicily referring to clothing , dying and in the cloth trade, remain.^[26]

            Above all, Sicily's place-names point back to the glorious Muslim age. The whole island is dotted with place-names of Arab origin - some 328 hamlets and towns still retain their Arabic appellations.^[27]

            A sample of these will give one an idea of these pointers to Sicily's Arab past. All towns, villages and streets with the prefix of Calta , from the Arabic qala (castle), and gibil, jabal (mountain) are of Arab origin. Baida is the Arabic bayda (white); Alcamo, al-Kamuk (name of an Arab fortress); Alcantara, al-qantarah (bridge); Bagheria, bahariah (place by the sea); Caltabellotta, qal at  al-ballut (citadel of the oak); Caltagirone, gal at and gerun (castle and cave); Caltanissetta, qal at al-nisa' (the fortress of women); Castrogiovanni, qar Yani  (the fortress of Yani); Cassara, qasr (palace or fort); Gibelmanna, jabal manna (mount of desire); Marza, marsa (harbour); Misilmeri, manzil al-Amir (the quarters of the Amir); Marzamemi, marsa Muammad (the harbour of Muhammad); Zappala, zalamat Allah (God's man); and Marsala, which is also the name of a famous wine, from marsa Allah (the harbour of God).

            Besides place names, in the everyday Sicilian dialect, there are a good number of words whose origin goes back to Arabic. Ammiragghiu (admiral) is derived from the Arabic amir; baitu (a place for merchandise), bayt; balata (floor tile), balaa   bazzarioutu (a market square), bazar; caratu (carat), girat; carvana (caravan), gayrawan; coffa (basket), guffah; cubba (dome), qubba; defetari (registers of lands), daf~tir; filusi (money), fulus; fúnnacu (lodge), funduq; giubba (jacket),  jubba; malaïï éni (warehouse), makhzan; mischinu (poor), miskin; raisi (skipper), ra'i s; sciaccatu (cracked), šaqqa; sciabica (net), shabkah; taliari (the verb to look), ala a; tariffa (tariff), taarif; zecca (minting house), sikkat; and zubbio (rubbish heap), zubb~lah. According to W. Root even the word mafia may have come from the Arabic manafa (place of exile), and refers to the Sicilian Arabs who, after they had lost control of the island, became exiles on their own land.^[28]

            On the other hand, the Arab's profound contributions to the culinary art of the island dwarf all these other influences. These have impregnated Sicily's cuisine with an unmistakable Arab touch. Although the Sicilian dishes, beginning from about 1000 B.C., borrowed much from the conquering Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans, it was the Arab kitchen that has been the most pervasive, taking on its today's character from the Muslim era.^[29]

            The rich foods of the Middle East, new methods of preserving food, the drying of fruits and vegetables, and the art of distillation; and flavouring by the use of carob, pistachio and essence of flowers^[30] are some of the contributions made by the Arabs to the Sicilian kitchen. Likewise, the enlivenment by herbs such as bay leaf, fennel, marjoram, onions, oregano, parsley and rosemary are a leftover from Sicily's Muslim times.

            Pasta, which many believe is as Italian as Rome itself, is a precious heritage of the Arab. ^[31] A number of food writers believe that the Arabs first brought pasta to Sicily. Noodles known as rishta were eaten in ancient Persia and are mentioned in the cookbooks of medieval Islam. The earliest mention of pasta being produced on a commercial scale was by the Arab geographer al-Idrisi in a survey of Sicily written at the request of his Norman master, King Roger II. He called vermicelli itriya - an Arabic word which has survived as tria in the Sicilian dialect.^[32]

            F. Wood supports this origin of pasta, writing in her book Did Marco Polo Go to China?:

"It was the occupation of Sicily in 827 by an Arab army that brought hard durum wheat to Italy. Easy to grow but difficult to mill, it is the main ingredient in pasta. Durum wheat  pasta then gradually spread northwards throughout Italy. ...the vocabulary of the Arabs       in Sicily is commemorated in a type of thin spaghetti still known by the old Arab name,     itriya. Curiously, despite the demonstrated introduction and northwards movement,            there seems to have been a separate Genoese (not Venetian, alas) tradition of pasta-           making, which also owed a great deal to Arab influence. Small lasagne-like squares of       pasta are called mandili di sea or `silk handkerchiefs', mandil being the Arab word for       a handkerchief, and in Genoa, linguini are known as tria, another Arabic word."^[33]

            Today, Sicily's dishes are more adventurous than the ones to be found in the remainder of Italy. They are hotter, spicier and sweeter than those of the mainland  - even pasta is cooked with hot peppers. Without doubt, almost everything in Sicilian cooking which differs from the mainland is inherited from the Arabs.

            As in the Iberian Peninsula, the Arabs brought along with them their sweets - perhaps, the most important contribution made by these eastern conquerors to the Sicilian cuisine was the  introduction of  sugar cane into Sicily. This revolutionized the whole of European confectionery and gave the Sicilians the Oriental taste for overpowering sweets, a characteristic which has survived until today.^[34] With sugar came the Muslims'  love for comfits, a sweet of nuts, seeds and sugar which gained wide popularity among the gentry of Europe in the era of the Crusades.^[35]      This Arab legacy and the technique for  preserving and candying fruits was put to excellent use by the Sicilians in later centuries^[36] and made possible a whole series of desserts. Sicilian candied pumpkins (zucccata or cuczzata), are the same as some confection made in Egypt today.^[37] Among many other desserts, cassata, the island's highest achievement in sweets, is an Arab innovation, taking its name from the Arabic qaah, a large steep-sided terra-cotta bowl used to make this cake.^[38]

            Sweets made from almonds, the frying of ^[39]fermented dough and the art of making sherbet - Italian sorbetto from the Arabic sharab - were both introduced by the Arabs into Sicily. Above all, it was, perhaps, the introduction of ice cream that was the greatest Arab contribution in sweets. From Sicily this Arab innovation spread to the Italian mainland, then to all of Europe.^[40]

            This is attested to by F. Wood  who writes that the Arabs played a vital part in the evolvement of ice cream by the transmission of ice-making, recorded in a 13th century Arab medical work, to the west.^[41] The people of Sicily, the home of ices in the western world, always claim Arab origin for their ices.^[42] Without doubt, today's Italian gelato (ice cream), mandorlato (almond dessert) and gelato di campagna (country ice cream) roots go back to the Sicilian Arabs.^[43]

            In addition, the Sicilian sweets based on honey, and found in all parts of the island, are of undeniable Arab origin. Many of the enticing pastries and candies like torrone or cubaita, as it is called when sesame seeds are added and the candy is cut into diamond shape, is a name that comes from the Arabic qubbayt.  In fact, Sicilian cubaita is not much different than a sweet made in 11th century Baghdad. M. Simeti writes that according to the Orientalist Maxime Rodinson, it is by way of this diamond-shaped candy, known in Arabic as lawzinag, the word "lozenge" entered the European world.^[44] 

            Combining ground almonds and sugar is an Arab invention with  a history that goes back to Muslim times.^[45] Hence, marzipan (marzapane), from the Arabic mawthaban, is today as Sicilian as Mount Etna.

            In names, tastes and introduction of new products into the island, the Arabs have left an indelible mark on how Sicilian food is prepared and offered. As in Arab times and in much of today's modern Arab world, a great deal of food are sold on the streets - a method of retailing which has persisted long after the Muslims departed.^[46]

            The Arab legacy in the Sicilian way of life, especially their kitchen is very pronounced.  Even though some food writers like G. Bugialli are still subconsciously in the Crusading mode, trying to deny the Arab contribution to the island's cuisine,^[47] most of the Sicilians themselves attribute anything old in monuments or food to the Muslims.^[48] 

            From the large storehouse of Sicilian foods of Arab origin we have selected a few dishes which have been modified somewhat to return them to their origin, yet, fit them into the culinary art of the 20th century.

Eggplant Appetizer - Caponata

Serves about 6

            Eggplants are of Persian origin and were introduced into the Iberian Peninsula and later into Sicily by the Arabs. This Sicilian dish is very similar to appetizers prepared in most Middle Eastern countries.

1 large eggplant, peeled and diced into 1/2 inch cubes

1 1/2 teaspoons salt

1/2 cup olive oil

1 large onion, finely chopped

2 cloves garlic, crushed

1 hot pepper, very finely chopped

2 tablespoons tomato paste, dissolved in 1/2 cup of water

1 small can of anchovies (1.75 oz  50 g), finely chopped

2 tablespoons green olives, pitted and chopped

1 teaspoon oregano

1/2 teaspoon pepper

2 tablespoons lemon juice

4 tablespoons pine nuts or slivered almonds, slightly toasted

            Sprinkle eggplant cubes with 1 teaspoon of salt, then place in a strainer. Place a weight on top and allow to drain in sink for 45 minutes.

            In a frying pan, heat oil, then sauté eggplant cubes over high heat until they begin to brown, adding more oil if necessary. Remove with a slotted spoon, then set aside.

              In the same oil sauté onion, adding more if necessary, until the pieces begin to brown around the edges, then add garlic and hot pepper. Stir-fry for 5 minutes, then add remainder of  salt, eggplant cubes, and the remaining ingredients, except the lemon juice and nuts, then thoroughly mix and simmer over very low heat for 25 minutes. Remove from heat and stir in lemon juice and nuts, then serve hot or cold.

Semolina and Fish Soup - Cùscusa

Serves 10 to 12

            Cùscusa is famous in the Trapani region of Sicily which abounds in recipes, mostly dealing with fish, going back to the Arab era.  This westernmost tip of the island, stretching the fishing port of Mazara del Vallo north to Capo San Vito, was known in Muslim times as the capital of Arab cooking. Even today, in its cuisine, the area shows the deep imprint of the Arab past.

            This dish is of    pure North African origin and is cooked in an earthenware double boiler still carrying its Arab name, mafarhada.^[49] However, in Sicily it is prepared with fish instead of meat or chicken and served as a soup.

            To prepare cùscusa, a couscousier, which is a double boiler with the top part perforated, is required.

1 1/2 cups couscous

5 tablespoons butter

12 cups water

6 tablespoons olive oil

2 medium onions, chopped

2 lbs fish fillet, cut into 2 inch cubes

4 cloves garlic, crushed

4 tablespoons finely chopped fresh coriander leaves

1 hot pepper, finely chopped

3 tablespoons tomato paste, dissolved in 1/2 cup water

2 teaspoons salt

1 teaspoon thyme

1 teaspoon pepper

6 bay leaves

            Place couscous and butter in a mixing bowl, then knead with fingers until all kernels are coated with butter. Place in top part of a couscousier, then set aside.

            Place 7 cups of the water in the bottom part of couscousier and bring to boil, then place part with couscous on top and, if there is too much loss of steam between the two, seal the two parts together with a piece of wet cloth impregnated with flour.

            Cook over medium heat for 20 minutes then, stirring all the time to prevent the formation of lumps in the couscous, sprinkle 1 cup of the remaining water over the couscous as it is being stirred. Cook for a further 30 minutes, stirring couscous once in a while.

            In the meantime, in a saucepan, heat oil, then sauté over medium heat onions and fish for 10 minutes, turning the fish pieces over a few times. Stir in garlic, coriander leaves and hot pepper, then sauté for further 4 minutes, Add the remaining 4 cups of water and the remainder of the ingredients; then bring to boil. Cover and simmer over medium heat for 30 minutes, then place in a serving bowl and stir in the water from the bottom part of the couscousier.

            Serve soup and couscous separately, with each person adding couscous to taste, or stir in couscous into soup and serve.

Artichoke Stew

Serves 6 to 8

            Both the English name artichoke and the Italian carciofo are derived from the Arabic khurshãf. The Arabs introduced this vegetable into Sicily and the Iberian Peninsula and from these lands its cultivation spread to the remainder of Europe. Hence, its name in most European s derived from Arabic.

4 tablespoons olive oil

1 large onion, chopped

4 cloves garlic, crushed

4 tablespoons finely chopped fresh coriander leaves

1 hot pepper, finely chopped

2 cans artichoke hearts with their water (14 oz 398 mL each), quartered

1 can peas with its water (19 oz 540 mL)

1 can green fava beans or broad beans with its water (19 oz 540 mL)

4 tablespoons tomato paste, dissolved in 1/2 cup water

2 teaspoons salt

I teaspoon oregano

1 teaspoon pepper

            In a saucepan, heat oil, then sauté onion over medium heat until they begin to brown. Add garlic, coriander leaves and hot pepper, then stir-fry for further 5 minutes. Add the remaining ingredients, then bring to a boil. Cover and simmer over low heat for 30 minutes, then serve hot

Vegetables and Eggs - Shashouka

Serves about 6

            The name of this dish indicates its North African origin. Very common in Tunisia, versions of this recipe are often served for breakfast in the peoples' restaurants throughout the country.

1/2 cup olive oil

2 lbs potatoes, peeled, then diced into 1/2 inch cubes

2 medium onions, thinly sliced

2 medium sweet peppers, cut into thin strips

4 medium tomatoes, chopped

1 1/2 teaspoons salt

1/2 teaspoon pepper

1/2 teaspoon dried basil

1/8 teaspoon cayenne

6 eggs

            Heat oil in a large frying pan, then add potatoes, onions, and peppers and stir-fry over medium heat for 10 minutes. Stir in remaining ingredients, except eggs, then cover and cook over low heat, stirring a few times, for about an hour or until vegetables are well done. Turn heat to medium, then break eggs over vegetables. Cook for a few minutes, until eggs are done, then serve with eggs in centre of platter surrounded by the vegetables.

paghetti with Almonds - Pesto Trapanese

Serves about 6

According to M. Simeti, this recipe, found in her book Pomp and Sustenance, depending on ground almonds for texture, has lost its Arabic name but was very common in classical Arabic cooking and in the cuisine of the Italian Renaissance. (PS p.88)

6 cloves of garlic

1 teaspoon salt

1 cup fresh basil leaves

1 cup blanched almond, roughly chopped

4 ripe tomatoes, peeled and chopped

1/2 cup olive oil

black pepper

1 1/2 lbs spaghetti

            Place all ingredients, except spaghetti, in a blender, then reduce to pulp to make a sauce. Set aside.

            Cook spaghetti according to directions, then drain. Place in a serving bowl, then combine thoroughly with sauce and serve.

Macaroni with Sardines - Pasta con le Sarde

Serves about 8

            Considered to be of Arabic origin, versions of this recipe are to be found in the western part of Sicily when most of the Arab Muslims settled.^[50]

1 large bunch fennel green

3 teaspoons salt

4 quarts water

1/2 cup olive oil

1 lb fresh sardines, cleaned, then heads and tails removed

1 large onion finely chopped

1 cup pine nuts

4 tablespoons raisins, soaked in warm water until they turn plump, then drained

1 small can anchovies ( 1.75 oz 50 g), chopped

2 tablespoons tomato paste, dissolved in 2 cups warm water along

   with 3/4 teaspoons saffron threads

1 lb macaroni

1 cup toasted bread crumbs

            Place fennel green, salt and water in a saucepan, then bring to boil. Cook over medium heat for 10 minutes, then remove with slotted spoon. Reserve water. Finely chop fennel, then set aside.

            Heat oil in a frying pan, then fry sardines until they turn golden brown. Remove with slotted spoon and set aside.

            In same oil, sauté onions over medium heat for 10 minutes, adding more oil if necessary, then stir in pine nuts, raisins, anchovies and tomato paste, then bring to boil. Simmer for 10 minutes, then stir in fennel and sardines to make a sauce. Add salt to taste, then set aside.

            Bring fennel water to boil, then cook macaroni until done. Drain and place in a serving bowl, then, just before serving, stir in sauce and bread crumbs.

Chicken Stuffed Bread Loaf -

Pasticcio Di Mohammed Ibn Itmnah (Thummah)

Serves 6 to 8

            Tummàla, an elaborate casserole from eastern Sicily, is another dish which derives its name from that of Mohammed Ibn Thummah, an emir of Catania in Arab times. He is noted for allying himself with the Normans, helping them to occupy the island.^[51] This recipe is a slightly modified version of that found in M.T. Simeti book Pomp and Sustenance.^[52]  

1 chicken, about 4 lbs, cut into pieces

4 tablespoons olive oil

2 cops chicken broth

2 teaspoons salt

1 teaspoon pepper

1 loaf of crusty bread

2 tablespoons ground almonds

2 tablespoons ground pistachios

1 tablespoon capers

1 tablespoon chopped parsley

2 eggs beaten

juice of one lemon

            In a saucepan, brown the chicken in the oil, then add broth, salt and pepper. Simmer until tender, then remove skin and bones. Cut meat into small pieces, then set both meat and chicken juices in the saucepan aside.

            Cut bread loaf horizontally about a third of the way down so as to make a dish and lid. Hollow out loaf, then place the crumbs, reserved chicken juices and remaining ingredients in a food processor. Process into a smooth paste, adding a little water if necessary.

            Combine with chicken pieces, then place in the hollowed loaf and cover with lid.  Place loaf in a greased baking pan, then cover and bake in a 350EF preheated oven for 30 minutes.  Serve cold.

 Stuffed Peppers - Peperoni Imbottiti

Serves 8

            The European countries where stuffed vegetables are popular were all once Muslim controlled lands. Hence, this dish could very well have been prepared by the Arabs of Sicily.

8 large sweet peppers

3 cups bread crumbs

1 hot pepper, very finely chopped

4 cloves garlic, crushed

4 tablespoons very finely chopped fresh coriander leaves

1 can anchovies (1.75 oz 50 g) with its oil, very finely chopped

1/2 cup pulverized almonds

1/4 cup chopped green olives

4 eggs, beaten

2 teaspoon salt

1 teaspoon oregano

1/2 teaspoon pepper

3/4 cup olive oil

1 small can tomato paste (5.5 oz 156 mL), dissolved in 3 cups of water

            Wash sweet peppers, then cut off the tops, but retain. Seed, then set aside.

            Make a stuffing by thoroughly mixing bread crumbs, hot pepper, garlic, coriander leaves, anchovies, almonds, olives, eggs,  1 teaspoon of salt, oregano, pepper and 1/2 cup of the oil, then stuff peppers and replace tops.

            Arrange in a casserole, then add dissolved tomato paste, combined with the remaining salt and oil.

            Cover and bake in a 350EF preheated oven for 50 minutes, then remove the casserole cover and bake for a further 10 minutes.

            Place peppers on a serving platter, then pour sauce over top. Serve each pepper with a portion of the sauce.

Tuna Stew - Rapù di Tonno

Serves about 6

            In Tunisia, margat al-out and in Morocco tajin samak, similar fish dishes to this recipe, are a common fare. When the Arabs were defeated, the Sicilians retained this North African way of preparing fish.

1/2 cup olive oil

2 lbs. tuna fillet or similar type fish, cut into 3/4 inch thick slices

2 medium onions, chopped

4 cloves garlic, crushed

4 tablespoons finely chopped fresh coriander leaves

1 hot pepper, finely chopped

1 can stewed tomatoes (28 oz 796 mL)

1 1/2 teaspoons salt

1 teaspoon thyme

1/2 teaspoon pepper

1/2 teaspoon cumin

1 1/2 cups water

            In a frying pan, heat oil, then sauté fish slices over high heat for 5 minutes., turning them over once. Remove fish slices from frying pan, then set aside. In the same oil, sauté onions for about 5 minutes over medium heat or until they begin to brown, adding more oil if necessary.

Add garlic, coriander leaves and hot pepper, then stir-fry for a further 5 minutes. Stir in tomatoes, salt, thyme, pepper, cumin and water, then bring to boil. Add the fish slices and cover, then simmer over medium heat for 30 minutes.

            Place fish with its sauce on a serving platter, then serve hot.

Almond Clusters - Confetti

            This candy is believed to be one of the first sweets introduced by the Arabs into southern Europe.

1 cup almonds, blanched

4 tablespoons butter

3/4 cup sugar

1 teaspoon vanill 

            In a frying pan, place almonds, butter and sugar, then, stirring constantly over medium heat, cook for about 15 minutes or until the sugar becomes candy-like. Test for this by dropping a 1/4 teaspoon of this mixture in a glass of cold water. It should form a soft round ball.

            Stir in the vanilla, then spread on a tray. Allow to cool, then break into pieces and serve or store.

Cheesecake - Cassata alla Siciliana

            Besides the numerous types of cassatas, many Sicilian sweets like cannoli alla Siciliana, a cheese filled delight, once known as cappelli di turchi (Turkish hats), are of pure Arab origin. They are still enjoyed today as much as when they were savoured in the palaces of the Sicilian Arab emirs.

1 1/2 cups sugar

1/4 cup water

2 cups ricotta cheese

1 teaspoon cinnamon

3 tablespoons powdered chocolate or melted chocolate

1 1/2 cups chopped candied fruits

1/2 cup pistachio nuts, chopped

1 tablespoon rose water

1 to 2 lbs sponge cake, sliced into 1/2 inch thick layers

1 can chocolate frosting (16.6 oz 470 g)

            In a pot, place sugar and water, then stirring bring to boil. Remove from heat, then allow to cool.

            Place the dissolved sugar, cheese, cinnamon and chocolate in a food processor, then process into a smooth paste. Transfer into a mixing bowl, then stir in candied fruits, pistachio nuts and rose water to make a filling.

            On a serving platter, place a portion of the filling between each slice of cake and press together, then chill for 1 hour.

            Frost cake, then return to the refrigerator and chill for 2 hours.

            Cut and serve while the cake is still chilled.

Egg Pudding - Zabaione

Serves 4

            The tradition of employing egg yolks in desserts is to a great extent of Arab origin. The only difference, after the demise of the Muslims, in preparing this sweet is that in Sicily today wine is used instead of cream.

6 egg yolks

4 tablespoons sugar

1 1/4 cups half & half cream

1 tablespoon corn starch, dissolved in 2 tablespoons water

2 tablespoons toasted pulverized almonds

1 tablespoon butter

1 teaspoon vanilla

Whipping cream

            Place egg yolks, sugar, cream and corn starch in a blender, then blend for a few moments.

            Transfer to a saucepan, then stirring in the same direction, cook over medium heat until bubbles begin to form. Remove from heat, then stir in the almonds, butter and vanilla. Place in serving cups, then chill for 1 hour.

            Top with whipping cream, then serve.

Nougat - Torrone

            The Arabs are the initiators of the many types of this candy made in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. As in Sicily, in Spain this sweet, called turrón, is much sought after.

1 1/2 cups sugar

1 cup honey

4 tablespoons butter

1/4 cup water

2 egg whites

1 cup almonds, blanched and toasted

1/2 cup pistachio nuts

1 1/2 teaspoons vanilla

2 tablespoons lemon juice

1/2 cup icing sugar

            In a saucepan, place 1 cup of sugar, honey, butter and water, then, stirring constantly, bring to boil over medium heat. Remove from heat, then allow to cool for about 3 minutes.

            Thoroughly beat egg whites with the remaining 1/2 cup of sugar, then stir into saucepan mixture. Return to heat, then cook over medium heat, stirring once in a while, for 30 minutes.             Test by dropping a few drops of mixture in cold water to verify if candy hardens. If it does not harden cook further and retest as many times as necessary to reach the consistency of nougat.

            Stir in almonds, pistachio nuts, vanilla and lemon juice, then pour into a well greased pan to a l/2 inch thickness and allow to cool for 1 hour.

            Cut into 1 inch square pieces, then chill in a refrigerator for 1 hour.

            Remove the pieces from pan, then sprinkle heavily or roll in the icing sugar. Serve or store in a containers in a cool place.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ahmed, A., A History of Islamic Sicily, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1975.

Bettoja, J. and J. Garmey, Southern Italian Cooking:  Family Recipes from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Bantam Book, New York, 1991.

Bugialli, G., Foods of Sicily and Sardinia and the Smaller Islands, Rizzoli, New York, 1996.

Epstein, S.R., An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992.

Guercio, F.M., Sicily: The Garden of the Mediterranean - The Country and Its People, Faber and Faber, London, 1968

Lo Monte, M., Classic Sicilian Cookbook, Siman and Schuster, New York, 1990.

Lowe, A., The Barrier and the Bridge: Historic Sicily, W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., New York, 1972.

Root, W., The Food of Italy, Atheneum, New York, 1971.

Schiavelli, V., "Honor and Onions" in Saveur, No. 18, Meigher Communications, L.P., New York, April 1997.

Simeti, M.T., Pomp and Sustenance: Twenty-Five Centuries of Sicilian Food, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1989.

Smith, D.M., A History of Sicily: Medieval Sicily 800-1713, Ghatto and Windus Ltd., London, 1968.

Waern, C., Medieval Sicily: Aspects of Life and Art in the Middle Ages, Duckworth and Co., London, 1910

Wood, F., Did Marco Polo go to China, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1996

Dictionaries

Al-Mawrid: A modern English-Arabic Dictionary, by Munir Baalbaki, Dar El-ilm Lil Malayen, Beirut, 1967.

Arabic-English Dictionary, H. Anthony Salmoné, Trubner & Co., London, 1890.

Dozy, R., Glossaire des Mots Espanols et Portugais Dérives de l'Arabe, E.J. Brill, Leiden, l869.

Hans Wehr: A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, Edited by J. Milton Cowan, Third Edition, Spoken Language Services, Inc., Ithaca, New York, 1976.

Hava, J.G ., An Arabic-English Dictionary for the Use of Students, The Catholic Press, Beirut, 1915.

Lane, E, W., Arabic-English Lexicon by Edward William Lane, William and Norgate,  Edinburgh, 1863.

Lane, E, W., Arabic-English Lexicon by Stanley Lane-Pool, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.,   New York, 1956.

Supplement aux Dictionnaires Arabes, by R. Dozy, Librairie du Liban, Beirut, 1991.